Sunday 18 December 2011

Business Communication: Report Writing


Writing Reports

Introduction
A report is a statement of the results of an investigation or of any matter on which definite information is required. (Oxford English Dictionary)
Formal report writing in professional, technical and business contexts has evolved certain conventions regarding format, style, referencing and other characteristics. These will vary in detail between organisations, so the information given below should be treated as general guidelines which hold good in the absence of any more specific `house styles'
Reports are a highly structured form of writing often following conventions that have been laid down to produce a common format. Structure and convention in written reports stress the process by which the information was gathered as much as the information itself.
As the business environment grows in its complexity, the importance of skillful communication becomes essential in the pursuit of institutional goals. In addition to the need to develop adequate statistical skills, you will find it necessary to effectively communicate to others the results of your statistical studies. It is of little use to formulate solutions to business problems without transmitting this information to others involved in the problem-solving process. The importance of effectively communicating the results of your statistical study cannot be overemphasized.
Unfortunately, it seems that many business managers suffer from inadequate communication skills. The December 1990 issue of the Training and Development Journal reports that "Executives polled in a recent survey decry the lack of writing skills among job candidates." A report in 1993 issue of Management Review notes the "liability imposed on businesses by poor writing sills." The report states that employers are beginning to place greater emphasis on communication in hiring practices. Many employers have adopted policies requiring job candidates to submit a brief written report as part of the screening process. An August 1992 issue of Marketing News reveals that "Employers seek motivated communicators for entry-level marketing positions." Obviously, the pressing lack of adequate writing and communications skills in American businesses is well documented.
Therefore, the purpose of this appendix is to illustrate some of the major principles of business communication and the preparation of business reports. We examine the general purpose and essential features of a report and stress the benefits of effective report writing. Emphasis is placed on the customary form a business report should take and the format, content, and purpose of its component parts. We will study illustrations of practical reports and the problems will provide the opportunity for students to develop and sharpen their communication skills.

The Need to Communicate
Most business decisions involve the cooperation and interaction of several individuals. Sometimes dozens of colleagues and co-workers strive in unison to realize mutual goals. Lines of communication must therefore be maintained to facilitate these joint efforts. Without communicating ideas and thoughts it would be impossible to identify common objectives and purposes necessary for successful operations. Without communication and the team effort it permits, the successful completion of any important project can be jeopardized. Some aspects of the project would be unnecessarily replicated while other tasks would be left unattended. Further, in the absence of adequate communication, colleagues would find themselves working at Coors purposes and perhaps pursuing opposing goals. What one team member may have worked to assemble one day, a second team member may dismantle the next. Without communication the chances for a successful outcome of any business endeavor are significantly reduced.
The Characteristics of the Reader
Business reports are quite often intended for a wide variety of different audiences. It is critical that you carefully identify the intended audience for your report; otherwise, it is likely that your report will be misdirected and less effective. You should consider exactly what the readers of your report already know and what they need to know to make informed decisions.
You should also consider the attitude the audience will adopt toward your report. If you fear that the readers may be somewhat hostile toward your report, you may want to offer more supporting evidence and documentation that you would if their reception was thought to be more favorable. The educational background and work experience of the audience is also a key factor in the formulation of your report. A report written for top executives will differ considerably from the prepared for line supervisors in terms of style, word usage, and complexity. Even age, gender, and other demographic characteristics might serve to shape the report.
One thing is certain. Whether you earn your livelihood as an accountant, a marketing manager, a production supervisor, or a sales representative, you will work in a vacuum. You will find it necessary to constantly communicate with others in order to successfully complete your job. Generally speaking, the larger the institution in which you work, the greater will be the need to prepare written reports. As the organization grows in complexity, so does the required degree of formal communication.
Different types of reports:
During your time at university you may be asked to write different types of reports, depending upon the subject area which you have chosen. These could include laboratory reports, technical reports, and reports of a work placement or industrial visit, reports of a field trip or field work.

Reports vary in their purpose, but all of them will require a formal structure and careful planning, presenting the material in a logical manner using clear and concise language.
The following section explores each stage in the development of your report, making recommendations for structure and technique.
How many different types of reports are there?
Laboratory reports     
Health and safety reports
Research reports         
Case study reports
Field study reports     
Cost-benefit analysis reports
Proposals        
Comparative advantage reports
Progress reports          
Feasibility studies
Technical reports        
Instruction manuals
Financial reports         
And on it goes …

Stages in report writing
The format will depend upon the type and purpose of the report, its intended readers, and the conventions of presentation and layout prescribed by the organisation in which you are operating. In general, there are two broad types of format which are differentiated by whether the summary and/or recommendations are placed after the main body of the report, or are placed earlier, before the main body. The eventual format chosen might be a combination or a condensed version of these two formats.
The following stages are involved in writing a report:
• clarifying your terms of reference
• planning your work
• collecting your information
• organising and structuring your information
• writing the first draft
• checking and re-drafting.

1. Terms of reference
The terms of reference of a report are a guiding statement used to define the scope of your investigation.
You must be clear from the start what you are being asked to do. You will probably have been given an assignment from your tutor but you may need to discuss this further to find out the precise subject and purpose of the report. Why have you been asked to write it?
Knowing your purpose will help you to communicate your information more clearly and will help you to be more selective when collecting your information.
Planning your report
Careful planning will help you to write a clear, concise and effective report, giving adequate time to each of the developmental stages prior to submission.
• Consider the report as a whole
• Break down the task of writing the report into various parts.
• How much time do you have to write the report?
• How can this be divided up into the various planning stages?
• Set yourself deadlines for the various stages.
Draw up an outline structure for your report and set the work within a sensible time scale for completion by the given deadline. Some of the most time-consuming parts of the process are collecting and selecting your information, and checking and revising your report.
Collecting information
There are a number of questions you need to ask yourself at this stage:-
• What is the information you need?
• Where do you find it?
• How much do you need?
• How shall you collect it?
• In what order will you arrange it?

You may have much of the information you need already such as results from a laboratory experiment or descriptions of your methods of data collection. However, there may be other material which is needed such as background information on other research studies, or literature surveys. You may need to carry out some interviews or make a visit to the university library to collect all the information you need.
• Make a list of what information you need.
• Make an action plan stating how you are going to gather this.

Organising information
One helpful way of organising your information into topics is to brainstorm your ideas into a ‘spider diagram.’
• Write the main theme in the centre of a piece of paper.
• Write down all the ideas and keywords related to your topic starting from the centre and branching out along lines of connecting ideas.
• Each idea can be circled or linked by lines as appropriate.
• When you have finished, highlight any related ideas and then sort topics.
• Some ideas will form main headings, and others will be sub-sections under these headings.
• You should then be able to see a pattern remerging and be able to arrange your main headings in a logical order


Structuring your report
We discussed earlier that there are different types of report such as laboratory reports or reports on an industrial placement. Always check with the person commissioning the report (your tutor, your placement supervisor) to find out precisely what your report should include and how it should be presented.
The following common elements can be found in many different reports:
• Title page
• Acknowledgements
• Contents
• Abstract or summary
• Introduction
• Methodology
• Results or findings
• Discussion
• Conclusion and recommendations
• References
• Appendices
Title page
This should include the title of the report (which should give a precise indication of the subject matter), the author’s name, module, course and the date.
Acknowledgements
You should acknowledge any help you have received in collecting the information for the report. This may be from librarians, technicians or computer centre staff, for example.
Contents
You should list all the main sections of the report in sequence with the page numbers they begin on. If there are charts, diagrams or tables included in your report, these should be listed separately under a title such as ‘List of Illustrations’ together with the page numbers on which they appear.

Abstract or summary
This should be a short paragraph summarising the main contents of the report. It should include a short statement of the main task, the methods used, conclusions reached and any recommendations to be made. The abstract or summary should be concise, informative and independent of the report.
Write this section after you have written the report.
Introduction
This should give the context and scope of the report and should include your terms of reference. State your objectives clearly, define the limits of the report, outline the method of enquiry, give a brief general background to the subject of the report and indicate the proposed development.
Introductions to formal reports deal with the following aspects of the text:
(a) Topic or subject matter: how the report relates to a field, discipline or area of knowledge (reference to external framework). This is normally expressed in terms of why the topic is of sufficient importance or significance to deserve detailed coverage in a report.
(b) Purpose: what is the communicative intention in compiling the report (to describe, explain, examine, review, discuss etc.).
(c) Scope: which aspects of (a) does the report seek to highlight in fulfilling this purpose; often takes the form of an overview of the organization and structure of the report, i.e. the focus of the major sections; may mention aspects of the topic which have been intentionally omitted.
The above form of introduction differs from that of introductions to shorter scientific reports, in which a brief statement of the aim of the experiment or the hypothesis to be tested is all that is normally found.
The above three-part structure also distinguishes formal report introductions from essay introductions; the latter normally place more emphasis on the topic/field relationship through taking up a position (the thesis of the essay) in relation to the aspect of the topic highlighted in the title (often in the form of an arresting statement or thought provoking quotation).
Report introductions may—especially in the case of longer or more formal reports—refer in addition to the sources of the information incorporated within the document; this is done in terms of categories of sources (ie general statements about how and where you gathered your information: from books, articles, statistics, other reports, interviews and so forth).
A final point to note: in this form of introduction the focus should be on the particular report which is being introduced, rather than on the wider field or area to which it relates.
The length of the introduction will vary in proportion to that of the report.
Methodology
In this section you should state how you carried out your enquiry. What form did your enquiry take? Did you carry out interviews or questionnaires, how did you collect your data? What measurements did you make? How did you choose the subjects for your interviews? Present this information logically and concisely.
Results or findings
Present your findings in as simple a way as possible.
The more complicated the information looks, the more difficult it will be to interpret. There are a number of ways in which results can be presented.
Here are a few:
• Tables
• Graphs
• Pie charts
• Bar charts
• Diagrams
Illustration checklist
• Are all your diagrams / illustrations clearly labelled?
• Do they all have titles?
• Is the link between the text and the diagram clear?
• Are the headings precise?
• Are the axes of graphs clearly labelled?
• Can tables be easily interpreted?
• Have you abided by any copyright laws when including illustrations/tables from published documents?


Discussion
This is the section where you can analyse and interpret your results drawing from the information which you have collected, explaining its significance. Identify important issues and suggest explanations for your findings. Outline any problems encountered and try and present a balanced view.
Conclusions and recommendations
This is the section of the report which draws together the main issues. It should be expressed clearly and should not present any new information. You may wish to list your recommendations in separate section or include them with the conclusions.
Abstracts
The form and function of the abstract of a report include the following:
  • definition, providing the essence of the report in a few words
  • informative form, or
  • descriptive form
  • impersonal tone
  • connected writing
  • length 150-250 words (for longer reports, 1/2-1 page single-spaced)
American academic Kenneth K. Landes, irritated by what he perceived to be the inadequacies of many abstracts in professional journals, wrote in `A scrutiny of the abstract' (1966):
The abstract is of utmost importance, for it is read by 10 to 500 times more people than hear or read the entire article. It should not be a mere recital of the subjects covered. Expressions such as “is discussed” and “is described” should never be included! The abstract should be a condensation and concentration of the essential information in the paper.
(Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists vol 50, no 9)
1. Informative abstract
An informative abstract is usually written by the author(s) of a report. It appears in the same document as part of the complete text. This abstract describes the research or project and presents the main ideas of the report in a summarised form. Informative abstracts do not duplicate references or tables of results. To achieve economy of expression, the style of informative abstracts often omits terms which identify the particular report (such as `this paper' or `this report'). Lawson, J. (1990) `The education of the future senior health manager'. Australian Health Review vol 13 no 3 pp 184-8
Primarily due to economic forces, health services are being forced into a tight organisational framework of hospitals, clinics and services which need to be managed by educated professional managers. These managers need to be competent general and financial managers, competent planners, knowledgeable about health status, health issues, the Australian health care systems and knowledgeable about society, law and ethics. Assumptions that recruitment of people with such a formidable array of talents would be difficult are incorrect as judged by current experiences. Very talented and experienced candidates are being attracted to graduate education programs in health service management in many Australian universities. Accordingly the future management of Australian health services should be in good hands.
2. Descriptive abstract
A descriptive abstract is compiled by someone other than the author of the report to appear in another source, such as a data bank or library catalogue. A descriptive abstract describes the contents of a report but does not include interpretive statements, conclusions or recommendations. It is possible to base a descriptive abstract on the table of contents of a report. It is usually much briefer than an informative abstract. Edwards, P. & Gould, W. (1988) New directions in apprentice selection: self perceived `On the job' literacy (reading) demands of apprentices. Victorian TAFE Papers 8, 14-17
References
The reference list is placed at the end of the report. It is arranged in alphabetical order of authors' surnames and chronologically for each author. The reference list includes only references cited in the text. The author's surname is placed first, immediately followed by the year of publication. This date is often placed in brackets. The title of the publication appears after the date followed by place of publication, then publisher (some sources say publisher first, then place of publication). There are many other minor differences in setting out references (exa. use of commas, colons, full stops) depending upon personal preferences or house styles. The important thing is to check for any special requirements or, if there are none, to be consistent.
Some lecturers require only a reference list. Others require, in addition, a bibliography. While the reference list includes only those texts cited in the body of your paper, a bibliography includes all material consulted in the preparation of your report.
It is important that you give precise details of all the work by other authors which has been referred to within the report. Details should include:
• Author’s name and initials
• Date of publication
• Title of the book, paper or journal
• Publisher
• Place of publication
• Page numbers
• Details of the journal volume in which the article has appeared.
References should be listed in alphabetical order of the authors' names.
Make sure that your references are accurate and comprehensive.
Appendices
An appendix contains additional information related to the report but which is not essential to the main findings. This can be consulted if the reader wishes but the report should not depend on this. You could include details of interview questions, statistical data, a glossary of terms, or other information which may be useful for the reader.
Style of writing
There are several points that you will need to consider when you are writing your report:
Active or passive?
Your tutor will be able to advise whether the report should be written in the ‘active’ or ‘passive’ voice.
The active voice reads as follows:
‘I recommend ...’
The passive voice reads:
‘It is recommended that ...’
The active voice allows you to write short, punchy sentences.
The passive appears more formal and considered.
Be aware of these differences and avoid mixing the two voices.
Simplicity
Most written reports should avoid using overly complicated language. If a report is to persuade, brief or justify, its message must be clear. Furthermore, the factual presentation of data should not be swamped with sophisticated, lengthy sentences.

Avoid using unnecessary jargon. This confuses even the most informed reader.
Ensure that your abbreviations are standardised. All too often authors invent their own jargon to ease the pressure on writing things in full. Be cautious of confusing your reader.
Use of language
Most reports should avoid the use of subjective language. For example, to report on a change incolouration from a "stunning green to a beautiful blue" is to project your own values onto a measurable outcome. What does the term "beautiful" mean k to you? What will it mean to your reader? Such subjective or personal language commonly has no place in the more objective field of report writing.
Layout
Most reports have a progressive numbering system.
The most common system is the decimal notation system.
The main sections are given single Indian numbers -
1, 2, 3 and so on.
Sub-sections are given a decimal number - 1.1, 1.2,
1.3 and so on.
Sub-sections can be further divided into - 1.11, 1.12,
1.13 and so on.
An example structure would look as follows;

1. Introduction
1.1 ———————-
1.11 ———————-
1.2 ———————-
1.21 ———————-

2. Methodology
2.1 ———————-
2.11 ———————-
2.12 ———————-

The following suggestions will help you to produce an easily read report:
• Leave wide margins for binding and feedback comments from your tutor.
• Paragraphs should be short and concise.
• Headings should be clear - highlighted in bold or underlined.
• All diagrams and illustrations should be labelled and numbered.
• All standard units, measurements and technical terminology should be listed in a glossary of terms at the back of your report.
Conclusion
Report conclusions, unlike introductions, cannot readily be analysed in terms of characteristic structural features. Conclusions are distinguished more by function than by form. In general terms, the principal function of conclusions is to relate to the purpose and scope of the report, as stated in the Introduction. In other words, the conclusion should confirm for the reader that the communicative intention has been achieved, and that the previewed aspects of the topic have been covered.
This general function can be more specifically expressed in a number of ways, including
  • to restate purpose and scope
  • to review or synthesise the main sections or units of the discussion
  • to reiterate the principal points or findings
  • to affirm the validity of argument or judgement
  • To assert the viability of approach or interpretation
Two further points to note:
  • Though normally and substantially retrospective, conclusions can extend or advance the topic, for instance by disclosing a further perspective (to be pursued elsewhere) or by making an additional, final judgment. Thus it is not strictly true to say that conclusions never contain anything `new'.
  • In reports, the conclusion section can take the form of a series of separately stated points and for these the plural term `conclusions' may be used. Subsequent recommendations would then be intended to address these points.
Presentation
Once you have written the first draft of your report you will need to check it through. It is probably sensible to leave it on your desk for a day or so if you have the time. This will make a clear break from the intensive writing period, allowing you to view your work more objectively.
Assess your work in the following areas:
• Structure
• Content
• Style

Look at the clarity and precision of your work.
Use the report writing checklist at the end of this section to check your report.
You may like to carry out a more formal evaluation.
Use the section Assessing yourself to help you draft assessment criteria and evaluate your work.
The skills involved in writing a report will help you to condense and focus information, drawing objective findings from detailed data.
The ability to express yourself clearly and succinctly is an important skill and is one that can be greatly enhanced by approaching each report in a planned and focused way.
Redrafting and checking
Summary
Title page
Does this include the :
Title?
Author’s name?
Module/course details?

Acknowledgements
Have you acknowledged all sources of help?
Contents
Have you listed all the main sections in sequence?
Have you included a list of illustrations?
Abstract or summary
Does this state:
The main task?
The methods used?
The conclusions reached?
The recommendations made?
Introduction
Does this include:
Your terms of reference?
The limits of the report?
An outline of the method?
A brief background to the subject matter?
Methodology
Does this include:
The form your enquiry took?
The way you collected your data?
Reports and findings
Are your diagrams clear and simple?
Are they clearly labelled?
Do they relate closely to the text?
Discussion
Have you identified key issues?
Have you suggested explanations for your findings?
Have you outlined any problems encountered?
Have you presented a balanced view?
Conclusions and recommendations
Have you drawn together all of your main ideas?
Have you avoided any new information?
Are any recommendations clear and concise?
References
Have you listed all references alphabetically?
Have you included all the necessary information?
Are your references accurate?
Appendices
Have you only included supporting information?
Does the reader need to read these sections?
Writing style
Have you used clear and concise language?
Are your sentences short and jargon free/
Are your paragraphs tightly focused?
Have you used the active or the passive voice?

Layout
Have you clearly labelled each section?
Is your labelling consistent throughout the report?
Presentation
Have you left sufficient margin space for binding/feedback?
Are your headings clear?
Have you checked your spelling?
Overall:
• What are the main points for consideration?
• What have you done well?
• What needs fine tuning?
A long report usually has the following sections:
This is an example long report template for you to copy to your word processor or print out. Then you can fill in your own details
Title Page
The Title; e.g. 'A Report on ....'
.....................'An Investigation into...'
.....................'An Analysis of ...'
.....................'A Comparison of ... and ...'
Your Name
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement of the
............................course.
If you are a HKPU student, your student number.
The date.

"I would like to thank my supervisor, Mr. _______, for the valuable advice and support he has given me in the writing of this report. I would also like to thank my teachers, Mrs._______ and Mr. _______ for their encouragement and guidance. Thanks also to my typist, Ms. _______, for her immaculate job and her suggestions. My deepest thanks go to my wife/husband, for her/his love, understanding and support."

Summary / Abstract
This study was to ______________________________
It was requested by ____________________________
It was requested on (date).
The investigation was done by ____________________
The main findings were that ______________________
It was concluded that __________________________
The recommendations are that _______should be ______

Section......................................................Page Number
1.Introduction.......................................................................1
2.Literature Review..............................................................3
3.Methodology.....................................................................5
4.Findings.............................................................................7
5.Conclusions.....................................................................14
6.Recommendations............................................................16
7.Appendices......................................................................18
8.Bibliography.....................................................................25
List of Figures
1.Bar Chart of Answers to Question 1...................................8
2.Pie Chart of Socio-economic Status of the Respondents.....9
List of Tables
  1. Survey Findings by Gender and Age Group........................10


Background
This report has been written because ....
It was requested by ...
It was requested on (date).
Objectives
The objectives of this report are to ....
Scope
This report examines .... . It does not examine ..... because ......

The area of investigation has been commented on by Channel (1994), Hoey (1993), Halliday (1993) and Lesser (1979), who are in agreement that...
However, they have different opinions on ....
Due to the differences highlighted above, it was decided to investigate ....

3. Methodology (also called the 'Method' or 'Procedure')
___ respondents, chosen by the method of _____ were surveyed from (start date) to (end date). Of these, ______ were invited for interview on (date).
The statistics were analysed using a _______ test because .........
The significance of the results was __________


4. Findings
4.1. Introduction
In general, the findings indicated that...

The major finding of the investigation was that...
In addition, ....
Surprisingly, ........ , which was an unexpected consequence of .....

5. Conclusions
The main conclusion that can be drawn is therefore that...
In the light of this, it is recommended that... (+ a general recommendation; e.g. that something needs to be changed. The detailed recommendations should go in the Recommendations section below.)

6. Recommendations
In the light of these conclusions, I recommend that _____ should be ____
In addition, a _______ could ______
Grammar Note:
To make suggestions and recommendations you should use 'could + infinitive verb' (if you are less sure), or 'should + infinitive verb' (if you are more sure). You could also use 'suggest + _ing' or 'suggest that + a subject noun (e.g. 'we') + a verb (e.g. 'could' + infinitive verb). Do NOT use 'suggest to'.





Appendices
Appendix 1: Sample Survey Form
Appendix 2: Results of Statistical Analysis by ______
Channel, J. (1994). Vague language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Halliday, M.A.K. (1993). Quantitative studies and probabilities in grammar. In Hoey, M.(Ed.) Data, description, discourse. London: HarperCollins, 1-25.
Hoey, M. (1993). Data, description, discourse. London: HarperCollins, 1-25.
Lesser, R. (1979). Linguistic investigations of aphasia. Studies in language disability andremediation 5. London: Edward Arnold.