Tuesday 2 July 2013

Dilemma of Identities: A Transcultural Study of Kiran Desai’s Inheritance of Loss

Dilemma of Identities: A Transcultural Study of Kiran Desai’s Novel Inheritance of Loss

Daughter of a well known Indian author, Kiran Desai is the winner of the 2006 Booker prize. She was born on the 3rd of September in the year 1971 in Chandigarh. She spent the early years of her life in Pune and Mumbai. She studied in the Cathedral and John Connon School. When she was around nine years old, her family shifted to Delhi. By the time, she turned fourteen, the family moved to England. A year later, they shifted to the United States. Kiran completed her schooling in Massachusetts. She did her graduation from Hollins University and Columbia University. Thereafter, she took a break of two years to write her first book "Hullabaloo in the Guava Orchard".

Her maiden novel "Hullabaloo in the Guava Orchard" was published in the year 1998. It was an amazing piece of work, for which Kiran received many accolades. Her second book "The Inheritance of Loss" was also well acclaimed. She also received the 2006 Man Booker Prize and 2006 National Book Critics Circle Fiction Award for it. Reviewers mostly praised the novel and Desai’s technique. Ann Harleman writes that Desai’s “rich and often wry descriptions [: : : ] have the depth and resonance of Dickens laced with rueful postmodern ambivalence.”[Harleman 39] Marjorie Kehe characterizes the book as “a work full of color and comedy, even as it challenges all to face the same heart-wrenching questions that haunt the immigrant: Who am I? Where do I belong?”[Kehe 13] Pankaj Mishra argued that “Desai takes a skeptical view of the West’s consumer-driven multiculturalism” and that the novel reveals an “invisible emotional reality” felt by “people fated to experience modern life as a continuous affront to their notions of order, dignity and justice.”[Mishra 194] These reviews only hint, though, at the postcolonial issues that the novel addresses. Carmen Wickramagamage has recently argued that “most people envision relocation as a painful choice between assimilation (betrayal) and nativism (loyalty)”[Wickramagamage 195]. The importance of this book becomes apparent in light of this distinction, which divides much postcolonial literary criticism. Some critics view assimilation positively, while others insist that the differences between cultures should be maintained and preserved. I shall argue that whether the characters should embrace cultural adaptability or remain in dilemma of their identities is of crucial importance to the novel. Desai explores both sides of the issue and ultimately challenges the desirability of assimilation and the wisdom of maintaining difference, inhabiting the margins, and avoiding “full and unapologetic participation in the New World”.

Ever since Post-Colonial literatures have come into existence, the writers were trying to create a new form of fiction within the English language by incorporating new images and above all new rhythms. One of the major features of postcolonial texts is the concern with place and displacement, shifting of location and resulting in “the crisis of identity into being”.[] Often, the protagonist of a post-colonial work will find himself/herself in a struggle to establish an identity; feeling conflicted between two cultures – one his own native culture and the other an alien culture. Therefore, a central theme in post-colonial writing is the transformation of the native into something other than himself – a Westernized native, or at least one who is in a crisis regarding his/her own cultural identity. Here, there is always a tension between wanting to belong to the new society yet wanting to retain the culture of the old one. The characters in Desai’s The Inheritance of Loss are in such dilemmas. The novel addresses these issues in a direct and poignant way. It is not merely a matter of adapting to a new environment, or adjusting to new customs, or learning a new language. It is much more profound, a displacement far reaching. It is an agonizing process of alienation and displacement which may create an imbalance that can profoundly affect a person’s feelings, thoughts and ideas.
Writing with wit and perception in her the booker prize winning novel Inheritance of Loss, Kiran Desai creates an elegant and thoughtful study of families, the losses each member must confront alone, and the lies each tells to make memories of the past more palatable.

Macaulay, in an educational, Minute in 1835, thus advised the British government on education in India “we must at present do our best to form a class [in India] who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern; a class of persons, Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect.”[Gauri 58] His words led the then cultural and educational policies adopted by the British government in India and making English the medium of instruction in some schools and universities in India in 1850 was the starting point of the impact of the western culture on the mind of a class of Indians. It re-stratified the Indian society. The Indians ‘in blood and colour, but English in taste’ were recruited into the British rule and thus enjoying a respectful social status.

The Novel begins with the character Jemubhai who significantly matches the Macaulay’s expected results of his recommendations. Damaged unalterably by the experience of being a young man during the British raj is Jemu, the retired judge, now living in a rambling run-down mansion called Cho Oyu (built for a Scotsman with romantic notions of Himalayan life) in Kalimpong. Sent to England as a young boy by his ambitious father to complete his law degree (which he passed only because of the quota system), Jemu wanted nothing more than to be English and, after his return to India, found himself unable to reconcile himself to being Indian. In his disgust at everything Indian and in his readiness to invoke English class sensibilities to his own advantage, Jemu epitomizes what Albert Memmi calls the 'duality' that was produced through colonial education. In Memmi's words, the memory which is assigned to people like Jemu is 'certainly not that of his people. The history which is taught him is not his own.'[Memi 37] Such people, adds Memmi, 'change and serve no one, but ...succeed only in finding moral comfort in malaise." Indeed, the judge's daily life is suffused in malaise [Memi 42]. He despises everyone and everything around him, resents having to assume guardianship of his orphaned granddaughter Sai, and is redeemed from being an entirely appalling character only by his doting affection for his dog Mutt. The dog, too, is displaced - whoever heard of a red setter in the Himalayas!

Bose the other character associated with the Jemu shows him what records to buy for his new gramophone and recommends Caruso and Gigli. He corrects Jemubhai’s mistakes in English pronunciation: Jheelee, not Giggly, Yorksher, Edinburrah, Jane Aae, Jane Aiyer, etc. It is his education in a school of British milieu and then in Cambridge University which makes him enjoy the status. In colonial days, the English literature which was introduced in schools and universities was western culture with it and thus fulfilling the dream of Macaulay. English poured the concept and importance, especially for social status, in the minds of Indians and thus people began to look power in relation to English this is best reflected in the character of the judge. There is an interesting scene in The Inheritance of Loss revealing the influence of English education in establishing cultural hierarchy among natives. Above the entrance to the missionary school where the judge studies in, a portrait of Queen Victoria, a symbol of imperial power is hung.

People like Bose the friend of Jemubhai, speak against the English people. “What bastards they were! Goras – get away with everything, don’t they? Bloody white people! They are responsible for all the crimes of the century”.[Inheritance of Loss 213] He is happy that the English has left India at least in 1947. He says that they stay in Africa, still making trouble over there. According to him, the justice is always against the native as the world is still colonial. He speaks angrily only because he failed in a case to win a pension equal to that of a white ICS man. He bids even the farewell using English sentences (not Indian) like “Good night. Good-bye. So long.”[Inheritance of Loss 215]

Jemubhai and Mr. Bose read a lot of textbooks like A Brief History of Western Art, A Brief History of Philosophy, A Brief History of France, etc. While studying, he grows strange to others and himself. He finds his skin tanned and his accent very awkward. He forgets how to laugh or smile. Even if he smiles, he holds his hand over his mouth; he does not want anybody to look at his gums and teeth. Jemubhai takes revenge on his early confusions and embarrassments in the name of ‘keeping up standards.’ He wants to keep his accent behind the mask of silence. He works at ‘being English’ with fear and hatred, but he wants to maintain the false pride throughout his life by ignoring his real identity at all. The acceptance of cultural hierarchy leads to some enduring personal dilemmas resulting into identity crisis. Kiran Desai very minutely paints this through Jemubhai. He follows British Culture blindly. He gets recruited as an ICS (Indian Civil Service) member and tries to become an official keeping up the British standards. It clearly shows his mind set-up that Britain represents a superior society to India. Homi Bhabha maintains that the powerful influence of a different culture will cause a tension between the desire of identity stasis and the demand for a change in identity; and mimicry represents as a compromise to this tension [Bhaba 86]. ‘Mimicry of the center’, as Ashcroft claims, is “the periphery to immerse themselves in the imported culture, denying their origins in an attempt to become ‘more English than the English’”[Ashcroft 4]. Same is the case with the judge. He studies hard only and only to get more acquainted with western culture and tries to adopt the British standards in his daily life. He takes afternoon tea every day, tries to speak English in a natural way of a native speaker, covers his brown skin colour with the powder puff but he is always in a dilemma, a struggle of identity. All of his efforts to find a place among those who are in the center are futile. Though he holds a highly prestigious position like ICS, he has to work only to reinforce the domination of Britain.

The situation becomes more pitiable, when Jemubhai returns to India; even to the members of his family, he is like a ‘foreigner’. Even in India he uses the powder puff .He does not use the puff to protect his skin, but to cover his brown skin color. This is because of the racial discrimination he faced during his education at Cambridge. On one hand, he could not find a room on rent in England for several days because people in Britain do not want to entertain Indians, on the other hand, when he returns to India, The members of his family are perplexed because of his odd behavior and some even mock at him; The family faces a Herculean struggle, especially between the judge and his wife - ‘a sense of estrangement is set up between the judge and others’. Therefore, the judge suffers a kind of double isolation. So he is neither recognized by the colonial center nor by his own culture and family and a feeling of ‘identity crises’ has trapped his mind. His failure to get into the center, his isolation from the Indian culture and differentiation of his own family corners makes it a difficult task for him to form any meaningful cultural identification and thus suffers from ‘identity dilemma’. Though, later on, the judge gets an idea of the impossibility of getting into the ‘centre’. Once, while eating the chicken, his cook pronounces ‘roast bustard’ as ‘roast bastard’ reminds him of the Englishman’s jokes on the way Indian uses Indianised English which makes him that he is also among the Anglicized Indians who are the subjects of such jokes. In spite of doing his level best in following an English lifestyle, he remains as ‘the other’.

After retirement, Jemubhai leads a lonely life till Sai’s parents are dead, the convent sends her to Jemubhai, her maternal grandfather. When Sai arrives at Kalimpong, he begins to confront his own sufferings as a victim of racism and colonialism as well as the violence he perpetrated against his wife (Egelman). Jemubhai does not have affection for Sai. But he finds something familiar about her. She has the English accent and manners.
Sai Mistry is a young girl whose education at an Indian convent school comes to an end in the mid-1980s, when she is orphaned and sent to live with her grandfather, a judge who does not want her and who offers no solace. Living in a large, decaying house, her grandfather considers himself more British than Indian, far superior to hard-working but poverty-stricken people like his cook, Nandu, whose hopes for a better life for his son are the driving force in his life.

She is a westernized Indian brought up by English nuns. Jemu relates himself with her as an alienated Indian living in India. Sai grows in a Christian convent in Dehradun with a lot of contradictions. She experiences hybridity by reading Lochinvar and Tagore along with economics and moral science. She practises Highland fling in tartan and Punjabi harvest dance in dhotis. She sings national anthem in Bengali and recites a motto in Latin. She learns Indian and English at the same time, inheriting the latter for her way of life. Though Sai’s romance, at sixteen, with Gyan, her tutor, provides her with an emotional escape from Kalimpong.

Sai finds that Jemu and her tutor Gyan are having different attitudes towards the western culture threaten their relationship. Sai eats with a fork and Gyan uses his hands as he is not aware of the western ways of eating. Later when he has a dinner with the judge, his discomfiture with the fork and knife is shown again. But, interestingly, when he dines at the judge’s house later on, he feels embarrassed for the way he uses the fork and the knife. He suffers from an inferiority complex but later on he refuses to adopt the western culture and retreats to his own culture. Gyan joining in ‘Gorkha National Liberation Front’, his admission to “the compelling pull of history and finding his pulse leaping to something that felt entirely authentic”[Inheritance of Loss 160], and recovers a sense of recognition by mocking at the judge’s mimicry of the western lifestyle but such attempts are nothing than illusions as Ashcroft maintains “within the syncretic reality of a post-colonial society it is difficult to return to an idealized pure pre-colonial cultural condition”[Ashcroft 108]. The fact that today the whole world is toward a ‘Global Village’ makes cross-cultural exchanges and influences inevitable. Grown up in a convent school, Sai is influenced by western culture and impressed by her grandfather’s use of better English than Hindus but the idea that the Indian culture is inferior is intolerable to her.

According to Sai, the convent system is fully obsessed with the notions of purity and morality. She thinks that those people are very much talented in defining the flavor of sin. For them “cake was better than laddoos; fork, spoon, and knife better than hands; sipping the blood of Christ and consuming wafer of his body was more civilized than garlanding a phallic symbol with marigolds. English was better than Hindi”.[The Inheritance of Loss 37]

In her grandfather’s house, Sai lives like an outsider. Jemubhai has no affection for her. She is accompanied by the cook at home. Though Sai and Jemubhai live as strangers under the same roof, he insists her to follow the English manners at home. She visits the Gymkhana club library and reads To Kill a Mockingbird, Cider with Rosie, and Life with Father. She admires the pictures of chocolaty Amazon and stark Patagonia in the National Geographics, ignoring the naïve beauty of Kalimpong. Lepchas, Rong pa, Fodongthing, and Nuzongnyue who are created from the sacred Kanchenjunga snow are fast disappearing.

When Sai reads the book “Vanishing Tribes,” she finds that she does not know anything about the original inhabitants of Kalimpong. But she is least bothered about it.

In H. Hardless’ The Indian Gentleman’s Guide to Etiquette, the author says: “Although you may have acquired the habits and manners of the European, have the courage to show that you are not ashamed of being an Indian, and in all such cases, identify yourself with the race to which you belong”[Inheritance of Loss  206]. Instead of reacting fiercely to it, she wants to search the descendants of H. Hardless to stab the life out of them.

The dominance of western civilization over Indian culture lingers in India. In colonial days, the Indians who accepted the cultural hierarchy appeared as to be great admirers of western culture. The mind of many Indians is still hovered by the thought that this is only the West which stands for the civilized. This can be seen in many scenes, especially where Biju, the son of the judge’s cook, makes an appearance. When Biju is in the U.S. embassy for a visa, we find the Indians struggling to reach the counter window. One among them tries hard to prove himself to a western civilized being so as to impress the U.S. officials:

He dusted himself off, presenting himself with the exquisite manners of a cat. I’m civilized, sir ready for the U.S., I’m civilized, mam. Biju noticed that his eyes, so alive to the foreigners, looked back at his own countrymen and women, immediately glazed over, and went dead [Inheritance of Loss 183].

Sai’s lover Gyan is a well-educated, sensible, young man. He belongs to the Gorkha community. His great grandfather is sent to Mesopotamia where the Turks kill him. Many of his family members fight and die in Burma, Gibraltar, Egypt, and Italy for the British army. He leads the poor life of native Indians.

Gyan and Sai roam around Kalimpong. When they visit a museum and views the exhibits of Tenzing and Hilary, Gyan claims that Tenzing is the real hero. He is a Sherpa, and without him Hilary couldn’t have carried the bags. Tenzing may be the first. But Hilary has taken “the first step on behalf of the colonial enterprise of sticking the flag on what is not theirs”. [Inheritance of Loss 161] Gyan asks Sai why she wants to celebrate Christmas. She has no answer for the question. Gyan complains that they are Hindus and don’t celebrate Id, Guru Nanak’s birthday, Durga Puja or Dussehra, or Tibetan New Year. He calls them ‘slaves’. He rages that they are running after the West, getting nowhere else. They appear fools to the whole world. They are copy cats, imitating the English people. But the English don’t want them. Gyan feels anti-secular and anti-Gandhian while shouting at Sai.

Gyan asks whether Sai and others try to be so westernized. He says that the Indians are ready to clean the toilets of English people even if they don’t want them. He hates the company of Sai and her grandfather with the fake English accent and the face powdered pink and white over the dark brown. He considers even the certificate from the Cambridge as an object to be ashamed of.

The GNLF starts the protests and announces strikes in Kalimpong. Gyan participates in the rally. When Sai questions about it, he speaks angrily with her. He tries to avoid seeing her. He thinks why he hates her recently. After a while, he could come out with a few issues about her: She who could speak no language but English and pidgin Hindi, she who could not converse with anyone outside her tiny social stratum . . . . She who could not eat with her hands; could not squat down on the ground on her haunches to wait for a bus; who had never been to a temple but for architectural interest; never chewed a paan and had not tried most sweets in the mithai shop, for they made her retch; she who left a Bollywood film so exhausted from emotional wear and tear that she walked home like a sick person and lay in pieces on the sofa; she who thought it vulgar to put oil in your hair and used paper to clean her bottom; felt happier with so-called English vegetables, snap peas, French beans, spring onions, and feared – loki, tinda, kathal, kaddu, patrel, and the local saag in the market.

Gyan has felt embarrassed while eating with Sai. He is puzzled about her finickiness and curtailed enjoyment. She doesn’t like his slurps and smacks. With fake Englishness, Jemubhai eats even chapatis, puris, and parathas with knife and fork. He insists Sai also to do the same in his presence. Sai feels proud for her behavior. She considers it as a status symbol. Gyan thinks that she may be masking it as a shame for the lack of Indianness.

Kiran Desai shows her or at least tries to show her agony on such western domination. Biju, Gyan, and Sai are a little different from the judge and the cook. While the judge blindly follows the existing cultural hierarchy Biju, Gyan and Sai, though trapped in, but at least, on some occasions seem to try to resist. Biju, like other illegal immigrants from the ‘Third World’ works in the basements of New York restaurants. He goes to the U.S. with his father’s ‘American dream’; since it is always his father who dreams of the modernity of the U.S. and thinks that it is too easy to get rich there. Throughout the novel, we find that Biju is fond of modernity and tries to enjoy it but with the passage of time the West reveals to him another part of it i.e. the disorderly and the uncivilized side. One day, Biju is amazed to see that Indians ordering beef in New York restaurants. This makes him abhorrent towards this disorderly situation: “One should not give up one’s religion, the principles of one’s parents and their parents before them. No, no matter what. You had to live according to something”[Inheritance of Loss 143]. This repulsion is little more obvious when later Biju becomes aware of his exploitation. He shows his anger to the boss but, pathetic that this could not lessen his fondness of modernity in the western society.

Desai takes as her landscape the air of India rather than its ground soil. She is not after a depiction of the geography and history of her forbears' country, but in the essence of a state shadowing its descendants. Her grasp is on the inheritance India bestows.

This theme of rootedness and the identity--or lack of it--pervades the novel. It is summed up in one of its many ironic and affecting scenes. Father Booty, the Catholic priest who, in his eager pursuit of natural beauty snapped a photograph of a beautiful butterfly, is charged with spying and ordered out of the country.

Unfortunately for him the butterfly had landed near a military installation. Father Booty has lived in India for 45 years, and is a stranger to the Europe now assigned as his forced destination. Yet as Desai shows, he is not an Indian citizen--he is a visitor who has never applied for Indian citizenship and even has forgotten to renew his working permit. A transplant for decades, he has assumed a family position to his land. Now he finds himself a displaced person ordered into exile to his native country.

The paradox of globalism is put in these words by Desai:  ... each of them [Sai, Father Booty, and Uncle Potty] separately remembered how many evenings they'd spent like this ... how unimaginable it was that it would soon come to an end. Here Sai had learned how music, alcohol, and friendship could create a grand civilization...

There were concert halls in Europe to which Father Booty would soon return, opera houses where music molded entire audiences into a single grieving or celebrating heart. But could they feel [Father Booty among the Europeans] as they did here? Hanging over the mountains; hearts half-empty, half-full, longing for beauty, for innocence that    now knows with passion for the beloved or for the wide   world or for worlds beyond this one....

Earlier, Desai describes Lola and Noni, two "aunties" as lovers of an old India where civilization had an order of finery lacking in the new democratic country. Lola, whose daughter has moved to England and is working for the BBC in London, characterizes the "new England" as a "cosmopolitan" society where lack of a British inheritance does not impede a person's chances at a successful life. Lola and her sister Noni, however, are not fond of the New England. They prefer the old one along with the old India. They feel at home in that past, in a world of tradition they have learned to accept as natural rather than historical.

Setting young and old against a shifting portrait of India, Desai explores the conflicts raging and inherent in a world where national identity no longer suffices in any one guise. Desai's heroine wants to be Indian; she wants as well to be a part of the modern world (or rather, knowing she is a part of modernity, she wants not to lose the past that has cradled her). Her journey to maturity must pass through several stations of conflicting loyalties, of demanding allegiances, and of losses that will prove a gain of illuminating experience.

Parallel to the relationship of Sai and her grandfather, and Indian consciousness, is the story of the judge's cook and the cook's son. The cook has never attempted to shed his servant identity, even in a new state where caste has supposedly been cast away; he is content to remain a loyal worker dependent on his master (Desai does not even give him a name till the end of the novel, for until that climactic moment he has been only a part of an institution, a depersonalized person without individuality. Again, the old and the new, the privileged and the underprivileged, the individual and the person-less society, are given parts in Desai's fiction.

Sai has several roads on which she travels, though she never leaves the continent of India. At the conclusion of the novel, she knows she belongs to the country whose hold she has doubted. The cook's son must also find his way in his journey from India to America, and back/forward to maturity. In giving up what might be gained, both Sai and the cook's son, Biju, inherit loss, but that loss will prove a lasting gain.

Along with these parallel passages of journey Desai allows her heroine the experience of romance, friendship, trust and betrayal. Sai learns her lesson in romance with a young tutor, who has conflicting loyalties to progressive thuggery and conservative decency. She learns to cope with compassion and rejection, and to comprehend the reasons for prejudice; she learns as well that to accept the prejudice she has come to comprehend is a continuation of that prejudice.

Desai ends her novel in a shocking scene that suggests a Voltaire-like garden in which, like Candide, the cook's son and the young heroine Sai assume satisfaction with their biographies--circumstance becomes fate. The ending is provocative, since it comments on the paths facing modern India.
Which road will be taken? What will be excluded? Will cosmopolitan, global progress change the fabric of India so that the veils of the past no longer provide alluring shelter? Will India turn from a world view back to an insular nationalism? Sai (and Desai) know these big words--cosmopolitanism, globalism, nationalism, materialism--are giant and vague concepts that must be personified to have meaning. A mixed horizon awaits Desai's young and new Indians. Freedom is their gain to be shared with a loss of certitude.

All the characters in Inheritance of Loss long for identity, for love and acceptance in an alien land. But they hardly are able to locate where they belong to since postcolonial hybridity is, in the words of Radhakrishnan, “a frustrating search for constituency and a legitimate political identity. They have developed a sense of loss, though in different degrees. The characters are all victims of the so called postcolonial dilemmas. However, eventually it is in Biju that the reader finds some hope of ‘true’ happiness in his supposedly reunion with his father. It is pertinent that the novel opens with a poetic description of a serene and peaceful landscape dominated by the awe inspiring beauty of Kanchenjunga in the North East Himalaya.” [The Inheritance of Loss 51]. All day, the colours had been those of dusk, mist moving like a water creature across the great flanks of mountains possessed of ocean shadows and depths” and it also ends with an optimistic note when Sai saw the meeting of the cook and his broken son Biju taking place: “The five peaks of Kanchenjunga turned golden with the kind of luminous light that made you feel, if briefly, that truth was apparent. All you needed to do was to reach out and pluck it”.[The Inheritance of Loss 8] Probably Desai wants to say that life, in spite of all its sufferings and problems are worth living and one should always learn from mistakes. One is often attracted by the material prosperity and comforts that the west seems to offer. But, in spite of the backwardness, poverty and illiteracy in one’s own land; one can probably derive a sense of belonging and identity in one’s own land only. Uprooting from one’s own land and re-rooting in an alien land is a painful process and Desai had successfully delineated the dilemmas faced by her characters in their longing to find a green pasture in a foreign land.


Works Cited:
1.     Ashcroft Bill, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin, eds. The Empire writes Back 2nd 
    Ed. New York: Rutledge, 2002.
2.     Bhaba Homi K The Location of Culture, London: Rutledge, 1994.
3.     Desai Kiran, The Inheritance of Loss, Canada: Penguin, 2006.
4.    Gauri Vishwanathan, The Mask of Conquest, Columbia University Press, 1989
5.    Harleman Ann, “Luminous Family Saga Bridges Eras, Cultures.” Rev. of The         
    Inheritance of Loss, by Kiran Desai, The Boston Globe 4th Jan 2006.
6.    Kehe, Marjorie “Hearts in Search of Home; Questions of Identity Weave  
    Throughout this Rich Tragimic Second Novel by Kiran Desai.”  The Inheritance   
    of Loss by Kiran Desai, The Christian Science Monitor 24th Jan 2006.
7.   Pathak, R S Modern Indian Novel in English, New Delhi: Creative Books: 1999.
8.     Said, Edward, Orientalism, New York: Penguin, 2003.
9.  Wickramagamage, Carmen, “Relocation of Positive Act: The Immigrant 
    Experience in Bharati Mukharjee’s Novels.” Diaspora 2.2 (1992): 171-200.