Methods of Communication

Methods of Communication

VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

We communicate by exchanging symbols to describe our ideas and experience. Language is a common symbol system which we use for sharing our experience with others. We can also use other symbols like pictures, colours, signs and sounds to communicate. We do communicate a number of things by our facial expressions, movements, clothing, and so on, whether we speak or not.

Communication through words is called verbal communication; communication through, other symbols is called non-verbal communication.

VERBAL COMMUNICATION

The communication mode which we rely on most often to carry meaning from one person to another is the verbal mode. Everyone who has ever thought about it has come to the insight, however, that there are enormous difficulties in sole reliance on this mode of communication. History is replete with examples of misunderstandings among people who were relying on words to carry meaning. Perhaps the most significant learning that has come out of this experience has been that words themselves do not have meaning. People have meaning, and words are simply tools that we use for trying to convey meaning that is idiosyncratic to one person into the idiosyncratic meaning system of the other person. One of the difficulties with words is that we attach to them different experiential and emotional connotations. Words are not always associated with similar experiences or similar feelings on the part of the listener and speaker. Other difficulties encountered in using the verbal mode include the use of jargon, the use of clichés, and the use of specialized vocabularies. It is often said that words have meaning only in context; it can be better said that words only have meaning when they are associated with people in context.

It is not uncommon to observe people attempting to find the right words to say what they mean. There is a myth that there is a way to "say it right." If we extrapolate from that phenomenon, it is easy to hypothesize that there are some people who, instead of experiencing feelings and sensations, more often experience language; that is, their experience parameters are defined by their vocabularies and their ability to be articulate. The psychologist, Piaget, describing cognitive development in children, says that we go through three phases: concrete, imagic, and abstract. When the little baby first experiences the world, he is incapable of a highly differentiated emotional or sensational experience. He experiences only distress or delight, and his/her major inputs are concrete; that is; he touches, tastes, sees, hears, and smells things. As it becomes necessary for him to interact with the world and significant others in his environment in order to have his needs met, he develops a fantasy life, an imagic experience. He can imagine mother when mother is not concretely present. That fantasy life can remain throughout his life. As he develops verbal fluency, he begins to abstract, from physical stimuli which bombard him and from the images that are triggered by those stimuli, meanings which he attaches to his experiences. This abstract experience is a translation of sense data into a meaning system. The difficulty with adults, of course, is that very often we do not let into awareness the physical sensations which we experience. We often mistrust our fantasy lives and tend to be afraid to permit ourselves to dream. We experience the world, then, in an abstract way rather than in a concrete and imagic way. The meanings that we permit ourselves to be aware of are verbal and abstract. What we abstract from the physical stimuli which we experience is dependent on our vocabularies and our reasoning abilities. But those three layers of experience concrete, imagic, and abstract are going on continuously. People experience concretely, people experience imagically, and people experience the abstracting process which they do when they are awake and attributing meaning to what they see, hear, feel, taste, and touch. Not all of these meanings can be carried from one person to another through the verbal mode only. Verbal communication may be oral or written. Oral communication is more natural and immediate. It needs training and practice to speak effectively in a formal situation.

Oral communication requires the presence, simultaneous attention of both the persons, personal presence and must be able to respond to the body language of the other.

Written communication can greatly extend the field and powers of oral communication. Writing overcomes the limits of space and time which confine speech.

Attributes

Speed: Written communication is slower in preparation, in conveyance and in reception; it takes more time to draft, type, dispatch, and to receive and read a letter than it takes to speak, and to hear, listen to, and understand an oral message. Feedback is also slower in written communication.

Record: Written communication serves as a record and can be used for future reference. It is a documentary proof, and can be used as legal evidence. Oral communication may be taped for later reference, but the authenticity of the voice may be questioned; moreover, tapes can be edited and the message distorted. Written records and documents are more reliable and acceptable.

Precision and accuracy: Written communication is more precise and accurate than oral. Choice of precise words is possible in written communication because the writer has the time to look for suitable words and phrases, and to revise and change the draft, if necessary. In oral communication, it is not always possible to be so precise in the choice of words; there is no time to seek and consider words while speaking; however, the recipient can seek clarification on the spot.

Support: Oral communication has the support of vocal tone and gestures and expressions which enrich the meaning of the words. This is not available with written communication, however, examples and illustrations serves the above purpose.

Length: A written message is usually shorter than an oral communication. The situation of oral communication requires some preliminary and closing remarks, while for written messages there are standard formats for opening and closing that can keep the message short. On the other hand written communication is suitable for long and lengthy communication.

Expense: Written communication requires stationery, preparation, and transmission, all of which cost money. Oral communication can also cost a great deal since it requires simultaneous presence and attention of the two parties, and getting together costs money. Costs will depend on the availability of the required person(s) at the particular place. Each type requires different channels for transmission. Availability and cost of each of the channels is a factor to be considered.

Few Situations of Oral Communication

1. Face-to-face conversation

This oral communication is possible between two individuals or among a small group of persons at an interview, or in a small meeting or in any other formal or informal situations. You can have immediate feedback, which makes clarification possible which offers a richer communication experience owing to the presence of the living personality whose voice, tone, expression and movements add significance to the words.

2. Telephone

Telephonic communication depends entirely on the voice.  Clarity of speech and skillful use of voice are important. There can be confusion between similar sounding words like "tale" and "tail", or between "bright" and "bite". Names and addresses communicated on the telephone are sometimes wrongly received.

3. Presentation

A presentation is a formal face-to-face prepared communication on a specific topic, delivered to a knowledgeable and interested audience. While a touch of humour always enriches a presentation, the general tone is serious and businesslike. The purpose is to give information; persuasion, canvassing, appeal, advertisement, caution and warnings.

Presentation aids such as LCD projector, screen, computer, banners, drawing sheets, pictures and other visual aids are used to enhance a presentation.  It helps in clearing understanding of all aspects of the topic among the audience as it is always followed by the interaction session.

4. Public Speech

A public speech or lecture has a face-to-face setting, but the distance between the speaker and audience is great; this distance increases as the audience gets larger, as in an open air public meeting. Much depends on the speaker's skill in using gestures and using the microphone. The possibility of feedback is very little as the speaker has to assess the audience while in speech.

5. Interview

An interview is a meeting at which one person or panels of persons, who are the interviewers, discuss a matter with interviewee to assess, to judge or to evaluate whether it would be worthwhile to enter into a business relationship with the other. Each side makes an assessment of the other. An interview is structured, and is characterised by question and answer type of communication.

6. Meeting

Usually, a meeting involves many persons; there is a chairman or leader who leads and guides the communication and maintains proper order. There is a fixed agenda or issues to be discussed at the meeting. Meetings are of many types, from the small committee meeting consisting of three or four persons to the large conference or the shareholders' meeting. This type of oral communication is followed by note-taking and writing up of minutes.

Few Situations of Written Communication

Written communication is used to prepare documents required for official work. Letters, circulars, memos, notices, reports and minutes are constantly prepared and exchanged in and between organisations. Each has a format and layout which is fixed by custom.

Letter

Letters are the most widely used form of written communication. They are used mostly for external as well as internal communication. A letter has a universally accepted lay-out to follow.

Memo

Memo (short form of memorandum) is an informal message between members of an organisation and generally relates to daily work. Information or instructions can be conveyed by a memo. Many organisations provide pads of memo forms (with blank sheets for carbon copies) for the exchange of short messages among individuals. Memo forms are usually small and are used for brief messages. The forms may have the company's name printed on the top; spaces are provided for date, sender's name and department, and the recipient's name and department. Top executives of an organization may have personal memo pads with their name printed on the top, for use within the department. A memo may or may not be signed.

Notice

A notice is common method of mass communication within an organisation. The day today routine matters and decisions or protocols are the major subjects of notice. A notice should be short; its language should be simple, and the type should be large and well spaced -for easy reading.

Circular

A circular is a detailed document giving information, instructions or orders on a specific matter. A circular has a number and a date for reference, and is signed by the authorised signatory of the issuing office. Circulars are generally issued by government, departments and other official bodies like government departments, councils, universities, and Head Offices of organisations.

Report

A report is a document prepared by an individual or a committee entrusted with the task of collecting information on a given subject. It requires careful research, collection of data and presentation of the findings, conclusions and recommendations. Reports are of varying length and may be anything from two pages to a full book divided into chapters.

Minutes

Minutes are the written record of decisions taken at a meeting. Different bodies have their own convention of recording the discussion and the decisions. Minutes may be written by hand or typed and pasted in a minute book, or typed and fired in a minute file. Minutes are legal document.

NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

You cannot say nothing! Try to sit for one minute without speaking. Even if you are able to keep from moving you will still communicate rigidity, anxiety, or something. We are always saying something. It is important to observe and try to understand what is being communicated. In many situations people say what they think intellectually rather than what they feel emotionally. There is some truth in the old cliche ``actions speak louder than words.''  Body language, carefully observed and interpreted, can tell a lot about what others are feeling.

Nonverbal communication is learned and practiced often on an unconscious level. We attract people by using these nonverbal signals, and sometimes those we attract (or who are attracted to us) are unwholesome. As we grow older and become more aware of ourselves we should be able to recognize and weed out the unwholesome in favor of those for whom we have an affinity.

Non-verbal methods of communication can be consciously created and used with both written and oral communication. Graphics of all kinds can enrich the message presented in a document or in a speech. Pictures, maps, charts, graphs and diagrams add quality and clarity to a verbal message.

Besides using these symbols consciously, we may convey meaning by facial expressions, gesture, tone of voice, clothing, and other aspects of our personality and body. This is called body language.

Non-verbal methods can be consciously used to enhance what we speak; a trained speaker can use gesture, facial expression and posture to enrich the meaning of words.

A good deal of body language is unintentional and unconscious. It occurs through visual appearances and sounds related to us and around us. Personal appearance, colours used in clothing and in office decor, stationery, voices and other office sounds make an impression on others; they communicate information about us.

Non-verbal communication comprises all the impressions we receive and the interpretations we make from what we perceive through our senses.

Non-verbal communication occurs even when there is no verbal communication. And it always accompanies verbal communication, whether oral or written; it is more difficult to control and may sometimes betray the truth which the speaker/writer is hiding behind the words. Hence the saying, "non-verbal communication speaks louder than Words,"

Thus, there can be unintended and unconscious non-verbal communication as well as conscious use of signs and sounds to communicate. An understanding of non-verbal methods and aspects of communication will help you to improve your oral and writ'.en presentation by using the methods and by gaining control over body language.

Uses of Non-verbal Methods

Non-verbal methods have almost instant effect because of quicker grasp by the recipient. It takes less time to see a colour or picture, and to hear a horn or bell than to hear or read and understand words and sentences. This quality of speed in conveyance and response makes non-verbal methods extremely useful in many situations.

1. For traffic signs and signals, it is the red or green colour or a pictorial representation that tells the road user of the safety or danger of proceeding. Motorists and pedestrians respond at once on hearing a horn or a whistle.

2. Visual non-verbal methods are extremely useful as an aid to verbal communication; maps, charts and graphs are absolutely necessary for conveying ideas related, to geography, locations, data, and most of the sciences. They can present a large amount of complex data in a compact form; one page can contain material which would need several pages to convey in words. This makes the information available conveniently, at a glance; comparisons can be made and conclusions drawn by studying a single sheet of paper which shows the data in a graph or a chart.

3. Human beings respond more powerfully to pictures, colours and plain sounds than to language. A cry of agony arouses a much stronger response than a tale of woe; a film showing the actual events or a story is more effective than a narrated or written story. News on the TV is more interesting, effective and realistic than on the radio because of the visuals.

4. For illiterate people, the best method of conveying important information is by non-verbal symbols. Bottles and containers of poisons are marked with a skull and cross-bones as a warning; illiterate drivers can manage with the non-verbal traffic signals and signs.

5. Films are used to explain processes to people who may not follow oral explanations easily. Actual or filmed demonstration is useful for teaching processes. Non-verbal communication can overcome the barrier of language.

METHODS OF NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Non-verbal methods may be visual or auditory. Visual methods are those which are seen and auditory methods are those which are heard. Signs, pictures, colour, designs are visual; a sound, bells, tunes, whistles are auditory.

Visuals

Appearance and Other Cues

We say a great deal to each other about who we are and how we experience each other and the rest of the world through symbolic means. The symbolic communication mode is essentially passive, and messages emitted in this way are very easily misinterpreted.

What are some of the symbols that we use? First, our choice of clothes can tell a great deal about who we are, what our values are, what our status is, how conservative or liberal we are. We associate differences in occupational status with different uniforms. The banker wears a suit; the farmer wears overalls, and so on.

The second set of symbols with which we often associate meaning is hair. The type of hairdo, length and color of hair, and the presence or absence of facial hair say a great deal about who we are. However, these signals are often highly ambiguous.

A third symbolic form is jewelry. Married people often wear wedding rings, some people do not wear a watch, and some people wear highly expensive jewelry, and so on. These are passive messages that are given out continuously to other people. A flag in the lapel, a red ribbon, an earring in one ear or in the nose say many things to other people.

A fourth form of symbolic communication to other people is cosmetics, or makeup. We associate meanings with different ways women apply makeup to their bodies. The prostitute usually has heavier makeup than other women. The man who uses a great many cosmetics is giving out a symbolic message about the meaning that his world has for him.

A fifth symbolic mode is the choice of automobiles. The business executive who drives a sports car is giving out a different set of messages to the world than his colleague who drives a luxury sedan or an ordinary family car.

A sixth symbolic mode is the choice and location of our houses. Social status is directly related to the type of dwelling one life in and its location.

Seventh, the geography of our living spaces is a form of symbolic communication. If you sit behind your desk in your office interviewing somebody who is on the other side of the desk, you are giving out a fundamentally different set of messages than if the two of you sit face to face with no intervening furniture.

So we are giving out a continuous stream of signals about our meaning to other people through the symbols that we choose to surround ourselves and invest ourselves with. These symbols are essentially passive. They are, however, a real part of our communication. When we are talking, when we are not talking, and when we are sleeping, we emit passive symbolic signals

Cues

A cue is a type of communication used by an adult to let a child know what is expected of him/her in a given situation. Cues are a type of receptive communication.

Designing and using a consistent routine is the beginning of teaching cues. Given time in this type of the routine, the child will first begin to anticipate his/her part in the routine. Given more experience with the routine, the child may begin to anticipate the routine from some part of the routine.

Touch cues are ways an adult can touch a child to communicate a desired action. For example, an adult may gently pull a child's arm upward with a grasp at the wrist to cue the child to lift arm during a dressing routine.

A sensory cue is some sensory input used to help a child anticipate an event: For example, a smell of lotion before it is applied to the child's arm or the sound of water splashing before placing the child in the bathtub.

Object cues are some concrete piece of a routine that is used to represent that routine. For example, a diaper may be an object cue for diaper changing.

When deciding what cues to use with a child, it is important to remember to select cues that the child can easily discriminate one from the other. Otherwise the cues may be confusing to the child.

Colour

Colour is a very important and powerful means of communication. Colour is so much a part of our daily life; we use it in clothing, design, and decoration; we introduce colour to enliven a dull environment. Colours are associated with different moods and feelings like black with death and sorrow, white with peace and purity, red with danger and so on.

Colour has psychological effect; motivation and state of mind of employees is influenced by the colour in the place of work. Pleasant and cooling colours in the work-place have good influence on workers. Black and other dark and gloomy colours are known to reduce productivity of workers; very bright and gaudy colours may be disturbing and over-exciting; well-matched and softly blending colours are pleasant and soothing.

Colour is an important means of formal communication. Think of traffic signals; nothing could be more important than to convey correctly and instantly, that it is dangerous to proceed. Matters of life and death are dependent on colour for communication

Besides traffic signals, colour is mainly used for classification and identification. In the chemical industry, colour is used to identify drums, pipes, cylinders or containers of a particular material or gas, e.g., red cylinders are used only for cooking gas. The cosmetics industry uses colour for soaps and shampoos to make them attractive as well as to classify and differentiate the various types. In offices, carbon copies of forms, orders, challans and other documents are made out on papers of different colours in order to distinguish copies meant for different departments. Teams, regiments and countries have their combination of colours on their flag.

Colour gives an added dimension to maps, chart and graphs, and makes it possible to convey a greater amount of information within the same visual/graphic representation.

Pictorial representation: A large variety of pictures from simple drawing to sophisticated coloured pictures and photographs are used on posters and in advertisements.

Charts and graphs

In a country like India, with a large number of illiterate and semi-literate people, a picture with very few words is more suitable for mass communication. Pictures are universally understood, and more easily remembered. They make an immediate impact because they are more easy to "take in" than a written message. Writing being linear (moving in a line), requires practiced eye movement, while a picture may be tackled by the recipient in any order that suits the eye.

A poster combines pictures and words. The use of words is kept to the minimum. A poster can convey simple instructions or a process by a series of pictures. It can be used for education and persuasion in matters like the importance of saving, the danger of drinking, the value of neat and clean appearance, etc.

Charts and graphs are pictorial representations of statistical information and can be made in different ways. Special skills and techniques are needed to prepare them; they cannot be, understood by the uneducated-, even educated persons need some explanation and training before they can follow a chart or a graph. There are great advantages in this method of presenting statistical data. The overall situation can be seen at a glance, and the relationships between the figures are seen more easily than in tables. It needs less space than description.

Charts and graphs must be properly titled and labelled to show what information is being represented; the date of the information must be shown. Graphs and charts must always have a scale and a key to explain the symbols used.

Maps are representations of territory and are used for conveying the space relationships between places. They are used for geographical information of all kinds, such as transport routes, climatic conditions, distribution of population, crops, animal life and vegetation; sociological factors like religion, literacy, health and nutrition can also be represented by maps. Maps of small areas are used to give information about routes and to locate places. Key and scale are needed in all maps.

A sign is a mark used as a representation of something; for example, + for "plus", x for "multiply" skull and cross bones for "danger." A sign is mostly visual, and has a fixed meaning. A signal is a previously agreed movement which serves to warn, direct, or command; for example, the coming on of a green light or the waving of

•          Green flag is a signal to go ahead; the firing of a gun salute signals the arrival of

•          VIP a signal may be visual or auditory.

Signs communicate instantly; therefore, they are most useful in communicating simple but important ideas. Traffic signs must instantly convey information to the drivers about what lies ahead on the road. Words cannot be so quick as signs; where instant decision has to be taken on the information conveyed, signs and signals are the only effective method.

Previous knowledge and a certain amount of conditioning are required for a person to respond to signs and signals; but once this is done, the response is a reflex action. A driver does not have to think that he must apply brakes when his eyes see a red flag or light; he just applies brakes. Most of us do not need to think that we must keep off places and things which show a skull with two cross bones below it. These are universally known signs for mass communication.

Signals

Signals are commonly used for communication among members of a group. Individuals use visual signs and signals to communicate if they are not within hearing distance of each other. Such signs may be made with hands, lights, coloured cloth, smoke, or anything which can be seen at the required distance.

Signals are movements the child uses to communicate needs, desires and feelings to adults. Signals are a form of expressive communication.

Signals may start as a behavior that the child is not intentionally using to communicate. But because an adult consistently responds to this behavior, the child begins to understand that producing this behavior causes a particular event to occur. For example, a child may inadvertently clap hands with an adult. If hand clapping is enjoyable for the child and the adult consistently responds by hand clapping with the child, the child may signal for more hand clapping by clapping the adults hand again. Signals are usually first seen within an already occurring activity. As the child becomes more sophisticated, he or she may produce the signal to initiate the activity.

Symbols

Symbols are representations of an event, action, object, person, or place that can be used to communicate about the event, action, object, person, or place. Symbols can be used for both receptive and expressive communication. Objects, parts of objects, pictures, print, actions, gestures, signs, and speech can all be symbols. Symbols may start as cues and signals. If a child recognizes a cue out of context, that cue may be acting as a symbol. If a child uses a signal or an object cue to communicate about an event, action, object, person or place out of context, the child may be using that signal or cue as a symbol.

The more a symbol resembles what it represents, the more concrete that symbol is. The less a symbol resembles what it represents, the more abstract that symbol is. An example of a concrete symbol would be a spoon, used during mealtimes, to represent mealtime. A less concrete (or more abstract) symbol would be a small line drawing of a person eating. The spoken phrase "time to eat" would be the most abstract because those sounds don't look, smell, or feel like food or the action of eating. Concrete symbols are more easily associated with what they represent than are abstract symbols. When determining how closely a symbol resembles an event, action, object, person, or place it is important to consider how the child perceives that event, action, object, person, or place. For example, a symbol based on visual similarities may not be as concrete for a person with a visual impairment as it would be for an individual who is fully sighted. A symbol based on an action may be abstract for an individual with physical impairment such that he/she had never performed that action.

Auditory symbols

The use of auditory symbols is very limited. Only very simple information can be conveyed by sounds.

Sound signals are used mainly for warning; in war time, sirens are used to warn about enemy air-raids; sirens are used in factories to warn of fire or accident, and by police vehicles. Whistles are used by the police and the army to call members to assemble, and to convey different instructions. Trains and ships use whistles as signal for departure and for warning. Bells and buzzers are used to indicate the starting and ending of work periods; bells are also used by special vehicles like the fire engine and the ambulance, to warn other road users to give way. A bell with a pleasant sound is associated with worship since it is used to call the faithful to prayer in many religions.

Tunes are often used as an identification mark. Programs on the radio and the TV are introduced with a signature tune; advertisements on these media are recognised by their tunes. Secret organisations use tunes which members may hum or whistle to identify and recognise members.

BODY LANGUAGE

Significance

Body movements indicate things about another person that may have great importance for creating communication or give you reasons to avoid it. We all have certain specific behavioural tendencies. That’s not to say we’re pigeonholed into being one thing or another. We are not locked into these tendencies-but more times than not, we tend to behave the same way again and again. Why? By default, we return to what we feel is safe and comfortable.

Often we ask ourselves, “Why did he say that?”, “Why did he do that?”, or “Who does he think he is?” These questions might be rephrased as, “Why did you say that?”, “Why did you do that?” and “Who do you think you are?” Each of us is different. Fortunately we are predictably different and our differences make us simultaneously attractive and frustrating to others.

The secret of persuasion is to understand yourself and others. Then you can adapt effectively to the needs of the person and the situation. Information is power, but it’s only powerful if you know how to obtain and use it.

David Golman, author of Emotional Intelligence, defined “EQ” as an ability to understand one’s own feelings and to express empathy for the feelings of others. His studies showed that EQ is four times more likely than IQ to indicate your level of success. According to Golman, the communication skills responsible for EQ are:

Empathy & Graciousness

Since ancient times, humankind has attempted to read others and explain the reason for their differences. Credible personality models have been traced back as the writings of Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Chanakya for a comparison of the better-known personality profiles.

The ability to influence others is dependent on the degree of willingness you and your partner wish to exercise in being co-operative and getting along. The greater your ability to adapt to your partner’s behaviour and to communicate in his language, the more receptive he will be to you and the greater your chance of success will be.

The key to influencing others lies in your ability to present your needs in terms of meeting their needs, and in wording your proposal in a way that is most receptive and understandable to them. In short, we want benefits spelled out for us in our own language. We want these benefits in a way that we can understand, so that we can put them to good use.

If you want to influence someone, you have to do the work of delivering your message in the receiver’s behavioural language. You must design your presentations to meet his needs so he can immediately see the benefits.

You have a preferred behavioural pattern.

You also have the ability to modify it to suit the situation and environment.

The ability makes you uniquely gifted and tremendously effective as a communicator.

Body Clues

You can use body clues to predict a whole range of actions. Body movements indicate things about another person that may have great importance for creating communication or give you reasons to avoid it.

Readiness and enthusiasm

When people are ready to take action, they’ll often sit forward inn their seats or stand with their hands on their hips. They are anxious to get going. They will stand or sit in an erect position.

They are alert, with wide, bright eyes. Their body motions are alive and animated. Their words can’t keep up with their hands. When you see these signs, get going-because they’re ready.

Frustration

Most of us are familiar with these signs. How many times a day do you see some of these gestures: hand-wringing, running fingers through hair, clenching hands or jaw, an exasperated sigh, or tension in the small muscles of the face? If you see these signs in others retreat before approaching with any request!

Superiority

People who feel superior to you often appear relaxed, with their hands clasped behind their heads or backs. The chin and head is often held high. They may lean back in their chairs, or lean their bodies against a wall, table or desk. When someone behaves this way it’s important for you to control your emotions, apply your communication skills and focus on the issues on hand.

Boredom

Bored people tap their fingers or feet. They’re often pre-occupied with personal grooming or other insignificant details, such as sharpening a pencil. They will also point their bodies to the door, and often check their watches. Often asking a question or stating your observation of their behaviours will involve them in the conversation.

Nervousness

Nervous people cover their mouths when they speak. Their voices are often high and may even break. Their speech is hesitant, and they use “ums” and “ahs” incessantly. They may clear their throats and wring their hands while looking down at their shoes. You may also see their facial muscles twitching as they shift back and forth on their feet.

It’s important for you to create a safe environment for them to speak, to maintain rapport and to be patient and encouraging.

Body language is an important factor in oral communication. In face-to-face situations, an important message is communicated by a number of factors, like clothing, appearance, voice, posture, facial expressions, gestures and other body movements. Much of body language is involuntary or unconscious but it makes a powerful impact. Body language can make or mar a presentation.

The study -of body motion as related to speech is called kinesics.

Paralanguage

 "Non-lexical" vocal communications may be considered a type of nonverbal communication, in its broadest sense, as it can suggest many emotional nuances. This category includes a number of sub-categories:

 Inflection (rising, falling, flat...)

 Pacing (rapid, slow, measured, changing...)

 Intensity (loud, soft, breathy...)

 Tone (nasal, operatic, growling, wheedling, whining...)

 Pitch (high, medium, low, changes...)

 Pauses (meaningful, disorganized, shy, hesitant...)]

Voice

The voice has characteristics like tone, volume, and pitch. Tone is the quality of the voice. Volume is the loudness or softness, which is modified according to the number, of, persons addressed and the distance between speaker and listener; speaking too loudly for the situation may betray lack of self-command. Pitch is the high or low note of the scale; a high note is usually louder and heard at a longer distance than a low note; a high-pitched voice is often unpleasant, and suggests immaturity or emotional disturbance. The voice becomes high-pitched when a person is struck with fear.

Speed of speaking is another aspect of the voice. Rapid speech indicates excitement. But if we have control, we deliberately increase speed of speaking to tell an interesting story, and reduce speed to create suspense, and to explain a difficult idea. Other qualities like rhythm, clear pronunciation, good accent, all have an effect on the listener.

Stress on a particular syllable or word can change the meaning and implication of the sentence. Try saying the sentence, "Were you there last night?" in different ways, putting stress on a different word each time, and note the difference in the meaning implied.

Just one word and a look can convey what might take several sentences; for example, an explosively uttered What? could mean, "What are you saying? Do you really mean that? I just can't believe what you're saying!"

These non-verbal aspects of the spoken word are known as paralanguage.

Vocalism or inflection

Vocalism or inflection constitutes a ninth form of nonverbal communication. As an example, take the sentence, "I love my children." That sentence is meaningless unless it is pronounced. The way that sentence is packaged vocally determines the signal that it gives to another person. For example, if the emphasis is on the first word, "I love my children," the implication is somebody else doesn't. If the emphasis is on the second word, "I love my children," a different implication is given; perhaps that some of their behavior gets on my nerves. If the emphasis is placed on the third word, "I love my children," the implication is that someone else's children do not receive the same affection. If the emphasis is placed on the final word, "I love my children," a fourth implication may be drawn, that is, that there are other people whom I do not love. So the way we carry our words vocally often determines the meaning that another person is likely to infer from our message.

Silence

Silence can be a very effective way of communication. Silence is not a negative absence of speech but a positive withdrawal or suspension of speech.

In a face-to-face situation, silence may indicate several things. It may be that the person is not sure what to say, or is so full of feeling as to be unable to speak. Silence can be used deliberately to convey certain feelings like anger or displeasure. Sympathy with someone who has suffered loss is often best expressed by keeping silent. Facial expression and posture may indicate the feeling behind the silence.

Silence can be very embarrassing if it is not possible to interpret it. It can be awkward in a group, when no one knows how to break it. On the telephone, it can cause much discomfort, as one cannot see the other and therefore has no clue from facial expressions as to the reason for the other's silence.

The terms "dead silence", "stony silence", "embarrassing silence", show that silence has a quality that communicates itself.

Short silences are very effective in giving emphasis to words. A pause before or after certain words make the words stand out from the rest. A skillfully placed pause has the power to make the listener more alert. In presentations, silence can be used effectively to emphasise a point; it is often far more effective than wild gestures or table-thumping.

Haptic communication

Haptic communication is communicating by touch. This is used in a number of contexts and also has dangers for the unwary as touching for example where another person can, in particular circumstances, be interpreted as assault.

Touch is often intimate and can be used as an act of domination or friendship, depending on the context and who is touching who, how and when. Yung children and old people use more touching than people in the middle years. Touch provides a direct contact with the other person. This varies greatly with the purpose and setting.

Touching is perhaps the most powerful nonverbal communication form. The skin is the body's largest organ, and through the skin we take in a variety of stimuli. We can communicate anger, interest, trust, tenderness, warmth, and a variety of other emotions very potently through touching. People differ, however, in their willingness to touch and be touched. Some people give out nonverbal body signals that say that they do not want to be touched, and there are other people who describe themselves and are described by others as "touchy feely." There are many taboos associated with this form of communication. Persons can learn about their own personalities and self concepts through exploring their reactions to touching and being touched.

Facial expression

Facial expression is an obvious communicative factor. A cheerful face or a gloomy face influences most people who see it. A happy or appreciative smile, a displeased frown, a look of surprise, and several other expressions of the face can convey, with or without words, the attitude and reaction of the communicants. Expressions accompany the speaker's words and also indicate the listener's reactions. An alert speaker can judge the listener's reaction by the facial expressions which act as a constant feedback. You can learn to use facial expressions for effect.

Eye contact

Eye contact is another form of nonverbal communication. We tend to size each other up in terms of trustworthiness through reactions to each other's eye contact. Try a little experiment with yourself. Remember the last time you were driving down the road and passed a hitch-hiker. The odds are very high that you did not look him in the eye if you passed him up. Con artists and salespeople understand the power of eye contact and use it to good advantage. Counselors understand that eye contact is a very powerful way of communicating understanding and acceptance. Speakers understand that eye contact is important in keeping an audience interested in one's subject.

Eye contact is a difficult, disconcerting communicative factor. The comfort level for eye contact is three seconds; if extended beyond that, it can amount to invasion of another's space. People who are aggressive try to fix others with a stare; if you are angry you might express it with extended eye contact. If you give full eye contact for too long together with an angry expression, the other person may describe the experience as "shooting darts at me."

A person who lying usually blinks and avoids eye contact; unblinking eye contact could mean that the person is lying and watching to see your reaction. Persons with lack of self confidence often avoid eye contact.

For a person making an oral presentation it is important to create rapport with the audience with eye contact. Presenters make it a point to take in the whole audience with a sweep of the eye, making brief eye contact with as many as possible.

The eyes, according to Leonardo da Vinci, are the “mirror to the soul.”

Confident eye contact shows trustworthiness and truthfulness.

Shifty eyes indicate aloofness and distrust.

In North America, two to six seconds is considered normal contact (with increasing cultural diversity, we need to become more comfortable with more and less eye contact).

If someone won’t maintain eye contact it may mean they are uncomfortable with either you or the topic.

Intent staring is considered aggressive.

Maintaining eye contact marks us as confident, credible and connected.

Related indicators include raising the eyebrows in disbelief, scrunching the face (as in frowning), and winking.

Gestures

Do we expect other cultures to adopt our customs or are we willing to adopt theirs? This might translate to how business or even foreign relations are to be conducted. Do we compromise or force others peoples to deal only on our terms? We may not have time to hear a language, but taking time to learn the "signals" is a powerful communicator.

As the global village continues to shrink and cultures collide, it is essential for all of us to become more sensitive, more aware, and more observant to the myriad motions, gestures, and body language that surround us each day. And as many of us cross over cultural borders, it would be fitting for us to respect, learn, and understand more about the effective, yet powerful "silent language" of gestures.

The world is a giddy montage of vivid gestures- traffic police, street vendors, expressway drivers, teachers, children on playground, athletes with their exuberant hugging, clenched fists and "high fives." People all over the world use their hands, heads, and bodies to communicate expressively.

Without gestures, our world would be static and colorless. The social anthropologists Edward T. Hall claim 60 percent of all our communication is nonverbal. In that case, how can we possibly communicate with one another without gestures?

Gestures and body language communicate as effectively as words- maybe even more effectively. We use gestures daily, almost instinctively, from beckoning to a waiter, or punctuating a business presentation with visual signals to airport ground attendants guiding an airline pilot into the jet way or a parent using a whole dictionary of gestures to teach (or preach to) a child.

Gestures are woven inextricably in to our social lives, but also that the "vocabulary" of gestures, can be at once informative and entertaining... but also dangerous. Gestures can be menacing (two drivers on a freeway), warm (an open-armed welcome), instructive (a police man giving road directions, or even sensuous.

Bear in mind that the following gestures are in general use, but there may always be exceptions. In recent years, Western and contemporary values and ideas have become more popular and has either influenced, altered, and even replaced, some of the more traditional gestures, understanding human behavior is tricky stuff. No two people behave in precisely the same way. Nor do people from the same culture all perform exactly the same gestures and body language uniformly. For almost any gestures there will probably be a minority within a given nationality who might say "Well, some might attach that meaning to it, but to me it means..." and then they will provide a different interpretation.

In the world of gestures, the best single piece of advice is to remember the two A's - "Ask" and be "aware." If you see a motion or gesture that is new or confusing, ask a local person what it signifies. Then, be aware of the many body signs and customs around you.

Gesture types

 Gestures, the movement of arms and hands, are different from other body language in that they tend to have a far greater association with speech and language. Whilst the rest of the body indicates more general emotional state, gestures can have specific linguistic content.

Gestures have three phases: preparation, stroke and retraction. The real message is in the stroke, whilst the preparation and retraction elements consist of moving the arms to and from the rest position, to and from the start and end of the stroke.

Emblems

Emblems are specific gestures with specific meaning that are consciously used and consciously understood. They are used as substitutes for words and are close to sign language than everyday body language.

For example, holding up the hand with all fingers closed in except the index and second finger, which are spread apart, can mean 'V for victory' or 'peace' (if the palm is away from the body) or a rather rude dismissal if the palm is towards the body.

Iconic gestures

Iconic gestures or illustrators are closely related to speech, illustrating what is being said, and painting with the hands, for example when a person illustrates a physical item by using the hands to show how big or small it is. Iconic gestures are different from other gestures in that they are used to show physical, concrete items.

Iconic gestures are useful as they add detail to the mental image that the person is trying convey. They also show the first person or second person viewpoint that the person is taking.

The timing of iconic gestures in synchronization with speech can show you whether they are unconscious or are being deliberately added for conscious effect. In an unconscious usage, the preparation for the gesture will start before the words are said, whilst in conscious usage there is a small lag between words and gesture (which can make the speaker appear manipulative).

Metaphoric gestures

When using metaphoric gestures, a concept is being explained. Gestures are in three-dimensional space and are used to shape and idea being explained, either with specific shapes such as finger pinches and physical shaping, or more general waving of hands that symbolizes the complexity of what is being explained.

Regulators

Regulators are used to control turn-taking in conversation, for example in the way that as a person completes what they are saying, they may drop their arms, whilst a person wanting to speak may raise an arm as if to grasp the way forward.

The Ultimate Gesture

According to Roger G. Axtell, the "ultimate gesture" carries certain welcome characteristic unlike any other single gestures.

First, this "ultimate gestures" is known everywhere- and I stress "everywhere"- in the world. It is absolutely universal.

Second, it is rarely, if ever, misunderstood. Primitive tribes and world leaders alike know and use this gesture. The tribesmen - like you, no doubt - recognize it in others and use it themselves.

Third, scientists believe this particular gesture actually releases chemicals called endorphins in to the system that create a feeling of mild euphoria.

Fourth, as you travel around the world, this gesture may help you slip out of the prickliest of difficult situations.

What is this singular signal, this miracle mien, this giant of all gestures?

It is quite simply, the smile.

RESPECT:                     This mean the capability of demonstrating respect in whichever way a specific culture requires: respect for age, respect in manner of speech, respect with eye contact, respect with hand or body gestures, respect for personal privacy, and so on.

TOLERATING

AMBIGUITY:                This refers to the skill of reacting positively to new, different, and at times, unpredictable situations.

RELATING TO

PEOPLE:                       This means placing the management of people on an equal level with "getting the job done." Too often, American managers are totally result-oriented without sensitivity to the " people ingredient."

BEING NON

JUDGEMENTAL:          This is the ability to withhold judgment until all information is accumulated, while also taking into account cultural idiosyncrasies that could color judgment.

PERSONALIZING

ONE'S

OBSERVATION:           This is the skill of recognizing that each person sees the world from his or her own platform of observations.

EMPATHY:                   This skill, the ability to place yourself in another person's shoes, is on of the higher level skills in intercultural relationships.

PERSISTENCE:              This is the companion word to "patience." Both are firm requirements in dealing with people from other societies around the world.

A global statesman who cares about people encompasses the several skills above plus three more-dignity, professionalism, and propriety.

"A statesman is a person who can tell you to go to hell in such a way that you actually look forward to the trip."

``Open'' and ``Closed'' gestures

Our gestures oftentimes tell something about us that we are not able or willing to communicate verbally. Here is a partial list of ``open'' and ``closed'' gestures—``open'' are present when a person is ready and willing to communicate, ``closed'' are present when there may be something standing in the way of honest, complete communication. These gestures can be observed in spouse relationships, parent–child relationships, supervisor–worker relationships, worker–client relationships, and any other time that two people are communicating. Maybe you will discover that your body language has been ``telling'' on you!

Examples:

Open hands, hand covering mouth, palms up making fists, unbuttoning jacket,  peering over top of glasses, spontaneous eye contact,  glancing at exit, smile frown, leaning forward, leaning back, relaxed,  rigid , hands away from face,  looking at floor, standing straight,  moving away, feet apart,  legs crossed, shaking foot ,shoulders squared  fidgeting, uncrossed legs,  locked ankles ,

Welcoming: handshake, folded arms, touching, cold shoulder, patting, open palm tapping, rubbing palms together,  hand wringing, affirmative head nods,  head lowered, eye contact,  lack of eye contact , calm, use of facial movements,  staring or eyes closed  body positioned toward other,  rocking, seating arrangement with no barriers  stalling for time (light pipe, clean glasses, etc.)

Posture

Posturing is a form of nonverbal communication. How one postures the body when seated or standing constitutes a set of potential signals that may communicate how one is experiencing his environment. A person who folds his arms and legs is often said to be defensive. It is sometimes observed that a person under severe psychological threat will assume the body position of a fetus. The seductive person opens his body to other people and postures himself so that his entire body is exposed to the other person.

Posture is the way we hold ourselves. Though difficult to interpret, it contributes much to communication. The way we hold our body, the way we stand or sit indicates something about our feelings and thoughts, attitudes and health. Sitting stiffly, may show tension; comfortably leaning back conveys a relaxed mood, eagerly leaning- forward shows the listener's interest in the speaker. Posture can indicate disregard or disrespect for others who are present; polite and well-bred persons are usually careful of how they stand or sit in the presence of visitors and in formal situations.

Graceful posture is a great asset in any business.

Proxemic Communication

The way we use space plays a subtle role in body language. The study of space as a communicative system is called proxemics. It is the study of the degree and effect of the spatial separation that individuals naturally maintain in various social and inter-personal situations. It is the way people structure the space around them.

A manager can use space to create an impression of status. A spacious office, a large office desk, a large car suggest a position of importance.

The distance we keep from the other person while speaking, indicates the relationship; we keep a longer distance from a slight acquaintance and get closer to persons with whom we have a closer relationship; we maintain a respectful distance from and allow more personal space to our superiors.

Proxemic communication is communicating with others by virtue of the relative positioning of your bodies.

Geographic territory

There are different parts of the world where people act differently.

The primary territory of a person is their personal area, which may be a house, a bedroom, a den or study, where they feel most at home. Here, they can be themselves and be relaxed.

Secondary territory is where they also feel comfortable. This may be neutral places such as bars and restaurants or other private places such as at a friend's house or a club.

Public territory is not owned by us or people we trust, but it is neutral. This includes streets, parks and other public places. There may be threat or safety here, depending on the place and the time.

Interaction territory is a temporary private space where I am having a conversation with others. This may be in a café or even moving along a corridor. It is assumed I can communicate with relative privacy within this space.

Personal space

The personal space around my body includes a number of concentric circles where the closer areas are reserved for more trusted people. If you are closer to me, you may attack me, so I will seek to keep close areas safer by forbidding all but approved friends.

Hall (1966) found four key zones:

Intimate:                     touching to 10 inches. For close friends and family.

Casual-                        personal: 18 inches to four feet: Informal conversation with friends.

Social-consultative:     four to twelve feet: formal transactions.

Public:                         Addressing groups of people.

Note that this distance can vary significantly. Extraverts, for example, may have smaller distances whilst introverts may prefer to keep their distance. People who live in towns and cities are used to squeezing closer to people so have smaller spaces, whilst country people stand so far apart they have to lean forwards to shake hands.

Body Angling

Bodies may be angled with other people ranging from side-to-side to face-to-face. Direct face-to-face can be confrontational or intimate and so many conversations are held with people sitting or standing at an angle to one another. When side-by-side, people face the same way and hence it is difficult to see the other's face. This is done as a practical step when walking or may be deliberately used to 'face the same problem'.

Time

Our use of time is an even more subtle non-verbal factor in communication. Time given to listen and speak to people creates a sense of self-esteem in them; it is equated with care and concern for them. On the other hand a person, who uses her/his own and others' time wastefully, creates an impression of being inefficient and disorganised. A sense of timing in conducting meetings (formal and informal), in conveying good or bad news, in making a presentation, generates respect and goodwill.

Energy

Energy as an aspect of body language is hard to describe; but we have all experienced the impact of a person who has a high level of energy. Some impress with high level of physical energy which is almost infectious; some have high intellectual or emotional or spiritual energy. Whatever its source, energy conveys competence and inspires respect. State of physical and mental health plays a large part in body language.

Clothing

What we wear conveys something about us. It requires good taste and judgement to make a subtle impression by what you wear. The colour, the design, the cut and fit, combine to make up the dress. In India we have several choices as it is acceptable to wear clothing of national style or of Western style. Appropriateness for the occasion is essential; the formality of the occasion, the time of the day, the season, the cultural background of the people who will be present, and the conventions of your own organisation should provide guidance. Many organisations have a dress code for occasions in order to ensure that its representatives convey the desired impression.

Appearance

A person's general appearance depends on several things. Besides the clothing, other factors that contribute to appearance are grooming, and accessories. Good personal hygiene and neatness, care of skin, nails and hair are expected standards and their neglect conveys an unpleasant impression. Accessories like tie, footwear, jewellery need careful selection and comfortable wearing. Handbag or briefcase is included in accessories; so is an umbrella if it is necessary to carry one. Whatever you carry on your person or in your hands ought to look comfortable and gracefully carried; or else it will shout for attention and communicate before you have opened your mouth.

Exercise:

Answer the following questions

1.      Write a comprehensive account on written and oral communication.

2.      Distinguish between verbal and non-verbal communication?

3.      Discuss the significance of face-to-face communication in an organisation.

4.      What do you understand by non-verbal communication? Explain its salient features?

5.      What are the different types of non-verbal communication? Explain each in brief.

6.      Explain the term "Kinesics" and write a note on the four major types of body language.

7.      Write a note on signs, symbols and signals and their use in organisational communication.

8.      Explain what is meant by visual communication. Give examples of each and write a detailed note on it.

9.      List the advantages and disadvantages of oral communication.

10.  List the advantages and disadvantages of written form of communication.

11.  Why does oral communication sometimes result in over communication? How can this problem be overcome?

12.  What are the ways to make oral communication effective? Explain.

13.  How can you make written communication effective? Explain.

14.  What are the various methods of communication?

15.  What are the essential conditions to make our Face-to-Face Communication effective?

16.  What is the importance of written communication?

17.  Explain with examples why the receiver should be more careful while interpreting a non-verbal message.

18.  What is the significance of gestures in our communication? Discuss.

19.  What precaution will you take while communicating by gesture?

20.  How will you understand the need of your boss when he enters office in the morning? Give one example.

21.  Explain with examples how media advertisements exploit the human weakness of dress and appearance.

22.  What role do different colours play in our day-to-day communication?

23.  What importance do the charts, maps and graphs have in our business communication?

24.  What is the importance of dress, appearance and distance?

25.  What are the principles on which the Visual Communication works?

26.  What are the characteristics and requirements of a good poster?

27.  Write notes on: -

a)         Face-to-face communication

b)         Facial expressions

c)         Gestures         

d)         Body language

e)         Silence

f)          Signs and signals

g)         Graphs, maps and charts       

h)         Colour

i)          Proxemics

j)          Special uses of face-to-face communication

k)         Lapses of written communication

l)          How non-verbal communication works

m)        Colour, layout and design

n)         Posters